Synthetic organic toxicants in Lake Superior
Keywords:
hydrophobic, lipophilic, POP, SVOC, Great LakesAbstract
Numerous synthetic organic toxicants have been reported in Lake Superior in the past quarter century although relatively few industrial centers are located on its shores. The chemicals enter the lake primarily through atmospheric deposition via transport from regional and distant sources. This contribution discusses research issues regarding the processes by which the chemicals enter and exit the lake, their in-lake cycling and bioaccumulation, and recently reported potential toxicological effects. Research issues that remain for historically important synthetic organic toxicants are discussed as well as those of emerging chemicals of concern. Although concentrations of some historically important toxicants are decreasing in Lake Superior's waters through volatilization and sedimentation and burial, abiotic and biotic in-lake cycling opens routes of entry into the lake's lower food web, contributing to concentrations in fish that warrant consumption advisories in certain cases. Concentrations of some non-polar emerging chemicals of concern that are increasing in production (such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers) can be expected to increase in the lake and be subject to similar processes occurring to historically important persistent organic pollutants unless regulatory intervention leads to decreasing atmospheric emissions. Other emerging chemicals of concern await measurement in Lake Superior. Our ability to understand the fate and effects of synthetic organic toxicants on the Lake Superior ecosystem, whether they are ‘legacy’ chemicals or emerging chemicals of concern, is limited by the availability of techniques to determine physical-chemical properties, concentrations, fluxes, bioaccumulation pathways and rates, and mechanisms of toxicity. Future research on synthetic organic toxicants in Lake Superior relies on advances in development of these techniques. Policy decisions must take into account the variety factors that lead to the presence of the chemicals in the lake and their toxic effects.
References
Ankley, G. T., Mihaich, E., Stahl, R., Tillett, D., Colborn, T., McMaster, S., Miller, R., Bantle, J., Campbell, P., Denslow, N., Dickerson, R., Folmar, L., Fry, M., Giesy, J., Gray, L. E., Guiney, P., Hutchinson, T., Kennedy, S., Kramer, V., LeBlanc, G., Mayes, M., Nimrod, A., Patino, R., Peterson, R., Purdy, R., Ringer, R., Thomas, P., Touart, L., Van der Kraak, G. and Zacharewski, T. 1998. Overview of a workshop on screening methods for detecting potential anti-estrogenic/androgenic chemicals in wildlife. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 17: 68–87.
Aulerich, R., Ringer, R. and Saronoff, J. 1986. Assessment of primary and secondary toxicity of Aroclor 1254 to mink. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 15: 393–399. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3090951http://www4.infotrieve.com/newmedline/detail.asp?NameID=3090951&Session=&searchQuery=Arch%2E+Environ%2E+Contam%2E+Toxicol%2E%5BJournal+Name%5D+AND+15%5BVolume%5D+AND+393%5BPage+Number%5D+AND+1986%5BPublication+Date%5D+AND+Aulerich%5BAuthor+Name%5D&count=1
Azam, F., Smith, D. C., Steward, G. F. and Hagstrom, A. 1994. Bacteria-organic matter coupling and its significance for oceanic carbon cycling. Microb. Ecol., 28: 168–179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00166806
Baines, S. B. and Pace, M. L. 1991. The production of dissolved organic matter by phytoplankton and its importance to bacteria: patterns across marine and freshwater systems. Limnol. Oceanog., 36: 1078–1090.
Baker, J. B., Totten, L. A., Giggliotti, C. O., Offenberg, J. H., Eisenreich, S. J., Bamford, H. A., Huie, R. E. and Poster, D. L. 2004. Response to comment on “reevaluation of air-water exchange fluxes of PCBs in Green Bay and Southern Lake Michigan”. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38: 1629–1632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes030710f
Baker, J. E., Capel, P. D. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1986. Influence of colloids on sediment-water partition coefficients of polychlorobiphenyl congeners in natural waters. Environ. Sci. Technol., 20: 1136–1143.
Baker, J. E. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1989. PCBs and PAHs as tracers of particulate dynamics in large lakes. J. Great Lakes Res., 15: 84–103.
Baker, J. E., Eisenreich, S. J. and Swackhamer, D. L. 1991. “Field-measured associations between PCBs and suspended solids in natural waters: an evaluation of the partitioning paradigm”. In Organic Substances in Sediments and Water, Edited by: Baker, R. A. pp. 79–90. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
Baker, J. I. and Hites, R. A. 2000. Siskiwit Lake revisited: time trends of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran deposition at Isle Royale, Michigan. Environ. Sci. Technol., 34: 2887–2891. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes991280p
Biddanda, B. A. and Cotner, J. B. 2002. Small players, large role: microbial influence on auto-heterotrophic coupling and biogeochemical cycling in aquatic ecosystems. Ecosystems, 5: 105–121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10021-002-0163-z
Biddanda, B. A., Ogdahl, M. and Cotner, J. B. 2001. Contribution of heterotrophic bacteria to plankton biomass and respiration in lakes and the ocean. Limnol. Oceanog., 46: 730–739.
Bowerman, W. W. 1993. Regulation of Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Productivity in the Great Lakes Basin: An Ecological and Toxicological Approach, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State Univ.. Ph.D. dissertation
Bowerman, W. W., Best, D. A., Grubb, T. G., Zimmerman, G. M. and Giesy, J. P. 1998. Trends of contaminants and effects in bald eagles of the Great Lakes basin. Environ. Monitoring Assess., 53: 197–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1006068330050
Bowerman, W. W., Giesy, J. P., Best, D. A. and Kramer, V. J. 1995. A review of factors affecting productivity of bald eagles in the Great Lakes region: implications for recovery. Environ. Health Perspec., 103: 51–59.
Bronte, C. R., Ebener, M. P., Schreiner, D. R., De Vault, D. S., Petzold, M. M., Jensen, D. A., Richards, C. and Lozano, S. T. 2002. A Case History of the Fish Community of Lake Superior, 1970–2000: A Restoration in Progress, Ann Arbor, MI: Great Lakes Fisheries Commission.
Buehler, S. S., Basu, I. and Hites, R. A. 2001. A comparison of PAH, PCB, and pesticide concentrations in air at two rural sites on Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 35: 2417–2422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes001805%2B
Buehler, S. S., Basu, I. and Hites, R. A. 2002. Gas-phase polychlorinated biphenyl and hexachlorocyclohexane concentrations near the Great Lakes: a historical perspective. Environ. Sci. Tech., 36: 5051–5056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes0207091
Buehler, S. S., Hafner, W., Basu, I., Audette, C. V., Brice, K. A., Chan, C. H., Froude, F., Galarneau, E., Hulting, M. L., Jantunen, L., Neilson, M., Puckett, K. and Hites, R. A. 1998. Atmospheric Deposition of Toxic Substances to the Great Lakes: IADN results through 1998, Chicago, IL: USEPA, Environment Canada.
Burkhard, L. P. 2000. Estimating dissolved organic carbon partition coefficients for nonionic organic chemicals. Environ. Sci. Tech., 34: 4663–4668. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes001269l
Campfens, J. and Mackay, D. 1997. Fugacity-based model of PCB bioaccumulation in complex aquatic food webs. Environ. Sci. Tech., 24: 1612–1618.
Capel, P. D. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1985. PCBs in Lake Superior, 1978–1990. J. Great Lakes Res., 11: 447–461.
Capel, P. D. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1989. Sorption of organochlorines by lake sediment porewater colloids. Adv. Chem. Ser., 219: 185–207.
Colborn, T., Dumanoski, D. and Myers, P. J. 1996. Our Stolen Future, New York: Penguin Books.
Colborn, T., vom Saal, F. S. and Soto, A. M. 1993. Developmental effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in wildlife and humans. Environ. Health Perspec., 101: 378–384.
Connell, D. W. 1990. Bioaccumulation of Xenobiotic Compounds, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Connolly, J. P. and Pedersen, C. J. 1988. A thermodynamic-based evaluation of organic chemical accumulation in aquatic organisms. Environ. Sci. Tech., 22: 99–103.
Cook, P. M., Robbins, J., Endicott, D. D., Lodge, K., Guiney, P. D., Walker, M. K., Zabel, E. W. and Peterson, R. E. 2003. Effects of aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated early life stage toxicity on lake trout populations in Lake Ontario during the 20th century. Environ. Sci. Tech., 37: 3864–3877. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes034045m
Cortes, D. R., Basu, I., Sweet, C. W., Brice, K. A., Hoff, R. M. and Hites, R. A. 1998. Temporal trends in gas-phase concentrations of chlorinated pesticides measured at the shores of the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 32: 1920–1927. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes970955q
Cortes, D. R., Basu, I., Sweet, C. W. and Hites, R. A. 2000. Temporal trends in and influence of wind on PAH concentrations measured near the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 34: 356–360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9905851
Cortes, D. R. and Hites, R. A. 2000. Detection of statistically significant trends in atmospheric concentrations of semivolatile compounds. Environ. Sci. Tech., 34: 2826–2829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990466l
Czuczwa, J. M., McVeety, B. C. and Hites, R. A. 1984. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in sediments from Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale. Science, 226: 568–569.
Dachs, J., Eisenreich, S. J., Baker, J. E., Ko, F. C. and Jeremiason, J. D. 1999. Coupling of phytoplankton uptake and air-water exchange of persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Tech., 33: 3653–3660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990168o
Dachs, J., Eisenreich, S. J. and Hoff, R. M. 2000. Influence of eutrophication on air-water exchange, vertical fluxes, and phytoplankton concentrations of persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Tech., 34: 1095–1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990759e
Dafner, E. V. and Wangersky, P. J. 2002. A brief overview of modern directions in marine DOC studies. Part II—recent progress in marine DOC studies. J. Environ. Monitor., 4(1): 55–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039%2Fb107279j
De Vault, D. S., Hesselberg, R., Rodgers, P. W. and Feist, T. J. 1996. Contaminant trends in lake trout and walleye from the Laurentian Great Lakes. J. Great Lakes Res., 22: 884–895.
Ducklow, H. 2000. “Bacterial production and biomass in the oceans”. In Microbial Ecology of the Oceans, Edited by: Kirchman, D. L. pp. 85–121. NY: Wiley-Liss, Inc..
Dykstra, C. R., Meyer, M. W., Warnke, D. K., Karasov, W. H., Andersen, D. E., Bowerman, W. W. and Giesy, J. P. 1998. Low reproductive rates of Lake Superior bald eagles: low food delivery rates or environmental contaminants?. J. Great Lakes Res., 24: 32–44.
Eisenreich, S. J. 1987. “The chemical limnology of nonpolar organic contaminants: polychlorinated biphenyls in Lake Superior”. In Sources and Fates of Aquatic Pollutants, Edited by: Hites, R. A. and Eisenreich, S. J. pp. 319–364. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.
Eisenreich, S. J., Gigliotti, C. L., Brunciak, P. A., Dachs, J., Glenn, T. R. I. V., Nelson, E. D., Totten, L. A. and Van Ry, D. A. 2000. Persistent organic pollutants in the coastal atmosphere of the Mid-Atlantic states of the United States of America. ACS Symposium Ser., 772: 28–57.
Eisenreich, S. J. and Strachan, W. M. J. 1992. Estimating Atmospheric Deposition of Toxic Substances to the Great Lakes—An Update, Burlington, ON: Canada Centre for Inland Waters.
Elenbaas, K. D. 2001. Heterotrophic Bacterioplankton and Related Environmental Forcing Conditions in Lake Superior, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University. M. S. Thesis
Elliot, J. E. and Harris, M. L. 2002. An ecotoxicological assessment of the chlorinated hydrocarbon effects on bald eagle populations. Rev. Toxicol., 4: 1–60.
Fahnenstiel, G. L., Sicko-Goad, L., Scavia, D. and Stoermer, E. F. 1986. Importance of picoplankton in Lake Superior. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 43: 235–240.
Fisk, A. T., Rosenberg, B., Cymbalisty, C. D., Stern, G. and Muir, D. C. G. 1999. Octanol/water partition coefficients of toxaphene congeners determined by the “slow-stirring” method. Chemosphere, 39: 2549–2562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0045-6535%2899%2900157-5
Foreman, W. T., Majewski, M. S., Goolsby, D. A., Wiebe, F. W. and Coupe, R. H. 2000. Pesticides in the atmosphere of the Mississippi River Valley, Part II—air. Sci. Tot. Environ., 248: 213–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0048-9697%2899%2900544-6
Fry, D. M. 1995. Reproductive effects in birds exposed to pesticides and industrial chemicals. Environ. Health Perspec., 103: 165–171.
Fry, D. M. and Toone, K. C. 1981. DDT-induced feminization of gull embryos. Science, 213: 922–924. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7256288http://www4.infotrieve.com/newmedline/detail.asp?NameID=7256288&Session=&searchQuery=Science%5BJournal+Name%5D+AND+213%5BVolume%5D+AND+922%5BPage+Number%5D+AND+1981%5BPublication+Date%5D+AND+Fry%5BAuthor+Name%5D&count=1
Galarneau, E., Audette, C., Bandemehr, A., Basu, I., Bidleman, T. F., Brice, K. A., Burniston, D. A., Chan, C. H., Froude, F., Hites, R. A., Hulting, M. L., Neilson, M., Orr, D., Simcik, M. F., Strachan, W. M. J. and Hoff, R. M. 1996. Atmospheric Deposition of Toxic Substances to the Great Lakes: IADN Results to 1996, Toronto ON, , Canada: Environment Canada, USEPA. EPA 905-R-00004
Gianessi, L. P. 1992. U.S. Pesticide Use Trends: 1966–1989, Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA Office of Policy and Analysis, US Government Printing Office.
Giesy, J. P. and Kannan, K. 2001. Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environ. Sci. Tech., 35: 1339–1342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes001834k
Giesy, J. P., Ludwig, P. J. and Tillett, D. E. 1994. Deformities in birds of the Great Lakes region: assigning causality. Environ. Sci. Tech., 28: 128A–135A.
Glassmeyer, S. T., De Vault, D. S., Myers, T. R. and Hites, R. A. 1997. Toxaphene in Great Lakes fish: a temporal, spatial, and trophic study. Environ. Sci. Tech., 31: 84–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9601503
Gobas, F. A. P. C., Zhang, X. and Wells, R. 1993. Gastrointestinal magnification: the mechanism of biomagnification and food chain accumulation. Environ. Sci. Tech., 27: 2855–3863.
Goss, K. U., Wania, F., McLachlan, M. S., Mackay, D. and Schwarzenbach, R. P. 2004. Comment on “reevaluation of air-water exchange fluxes of PCBs in Green Bay and Southern Lake Michigan.” Environ. Sci. Technol., 38: 1626–1628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes030567q
Gschwend, P. M. and Wu, S. 1985. On the constancy of sediment-water partition coefficients of hydrophobic organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Tech., 19: 90–96.
Guillette, L. J. Jr. and Crain, D. A. 2000. Environmental Endocrine Disrupters: An Evolutionary Perspective, New York City, NY: Taylor and Francis.
Guillette, L. J. Jr., Gross, T. S., Gross, D. A., Masson, G. R., Matter, J. M., Percival, H. F. and Woodward, A. R. 1994. Developmental abnormalities of the gonad and abnormal sex hormone concentrations in juvenile alligators from contaminated and control lakes in Florida. Environ. Health Perspec., 102: 680–688.
Guiney, P. D., Cook, P. M., Casselman, J. M., Fitzsimons, J. D., Simonin, H. A., Zabel, E. W. and Peterson, R. E. 1996. Assessment of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin induced sac fry mortality in lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) from different regions of the Great Lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 53: 2080–2092. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjfas-53-9-2080
Helm, P. A., Jantunen, L. A., Ridal, J. and Bidleman, T. F. 2003. Spatial distribution of polychlorinated naphthalenes in air over the Great Lakes and air-water exchange in Lake Ontario. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 22: 1937–1944. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12959518http://www4.infotrieve.com/newmedline/detail.asp?NameID=12959518&Session=&searchQuery=Environ%2E+Toxicol%2E+Chem%2E%5BJournal+Name%5D+AND+22%5BVolume%5D+AND+1937%5BPage+Number%5D+AND+2003%5BPublication+Date%5D+AND+Helm%5BAuthor+Name%5D&count=1http://dx.doi.org/10.1897%2F1551-5028%282003%29022%3C1937%3ASDOPNI%3E2.0.CO%3B2
Hillery, B. R., Simcik, M. F., Basu, I., Hoff, R. M., Strachan, W. M. J., Burniston, D. A., Chan, C. H., Brice, K. A., Sweet, C. W. and Hites, R. A. 1998. Atmospheric deposition of toxic pollutants to the Great Lakes as measured by the Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network. Environ. Sci. Tech., 32: 2216–2221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes970759j
Hoff, R. M., Bidleman, T. F. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1993a. Estimation of PCC loadings from the atmosphere to the Great Lakes. Chemosphere, 27: 2047–2055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0045-6535%2893%2990399-P
Hoff, R. M., Muir, D. C. G., Grift, N. P. and Brice, K. A. 1993b. Measurement of PCCs in air in southern Ontario. Chemosphere, 27: 2057–2062. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0045-6535%2893%2990400-Y
Hoff, R. M., Strachan, W. M. J., Sweet, C. W., Chan, C. H., Shackleton, M., Bidleman, T. F., Brice, K. A., Burniston, D. A., Cussion, S., Gatz, D. F., Harlin, K. and Schroeder, W. H. 1996. Atmospheric deposition of toxic chemicals to the Great Lakes: a review of data through 1994. Atmos. Environ., 30: 3505–3527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F1352-2310%2896%2900046-5
Honrath, R. E., Sweet, C. W. and Pluff, C. J. 1997. Surface exchange and transport processes governing atmospheric PCB levels over Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 31: 842–852.
Hornbuckle, K. C., Jeremiason, J. D., Sweet, C. W. and Elsenreich, S. J. 1994. Seasonal variations in air-water exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls in Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 28: 1491–1501.
Hornbuckle, K. C., Sweet, C. W., Pearson, R. F., Swackhamer, D. L. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1995. Assessing annual water-air fluxes of polychlorinated biphenyls in Lake Michigan. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29: 869–877.
Hudson, M. 2004. Microbial Facilitation of Contaminant Transfer in the Lake Superior Foodweb, St. Paul, MN, , USA: University of Minnesota. M.S. Thesis
IJC (International Joint Commission). 1987. Revised Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978, Windsor ON, , Canada: International Joint Commission.
Ikonomou, M. G., Rayne, S. and Addison, R. F. 2002. Exponential increases of the brominated flame retardants, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, in the Canadian Arctic from 1981–2000. Environ. Sci. Tech., 36: 1886–1892. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes011401x
James, R. R., McDonald, J. G., Symonik, D. M., Swackhamer, D. L. and Hites, R. A. 2001. Volatilization of toxaphene from Lakes Michigan and Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 35: 3653–3660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes0019631
Jantunen, L., Harner, T., Bidleman, T. and Wideman, J. 1997. Sources and air-water exchange of toxaphene to Lake Superior. Organohalogen Compounds, 33: 285–289.
Jantunen, L. M. M. and Bidleman, T. F. 2000. Temperature-dependent Henry's Law constant for technical toxaphene. Chemosphere—Global Science Change, 2: 225–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1465-9972%2800%2900004-0
Jeremiason, J. D., Eisenreich, S. J., Baker, J. E. and Eadie, B. J. 1998. PCB decline in settling particles and benthic recycling of PCBs and PAHs in Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 32: 3249–3256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes980143%2B
Jeremiason, J. D., Hornbuckle, K. C. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1994. PCBs in Lake Superior, 1978–1992: decreases in water concentrations reflect loss by volatilization. Environ. Sci. Tech., 28: 903–914.
Kannan, K., Yamashita, N., Imagawa, T., Decoen, W., Khim, J. S., Day, R. M., Summer, C. L. and Giesy, J. P. 2000. Polychlorinated naphthalenes and polychlorinated biphenyls in fishes from Michigan waters including the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 34: 566–572. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990966e
Kendall, R., Dickerson, R., Giesy, J. and Suk, W. 1998. Principles and Processes for Evaluating Endocrine Disruption in Wildlife, Pensacola, FL: SETAC Press.
Kucklick, J. R. and Baker, J. E. 1998. Organochlorines in Lake Superior's foodweb. Environ. Sci. Tech., 32: 1192–1198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes970794q
Luross, J. M., Alaee, M., Sergeant, D. B., Cannon, C. M., Whittle, D. M., Solomon, K. R. and Muir, D. C. G. 2002. Spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls in lake trout from the Laurentian Great Lakes. Chemosphere, 46: 665–672. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11999789http://www4.infotrieve.com/newmedline/detail.asp?NameID=11999789&Session=&searchQuery=Chemosphere%5BJournal+Name%5D+AND+46%5BVolume%5D+AND+665%5BPage+Number%5D+AND+2002%5BPublication+Date%5D+AND+Luross%5BAuthor+Name%5D&count=1http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0045-6535%2801%2900230-2
Mackay, D. 1982. Correlation of bioconcentration factors. Environ. Sci. Tech., 16: 274–278.
Mackay, D., Paterson, S., Eisenreich, S. J. and Simmons, M. S. 1983. Physical Behavior of PCBs in the Great Lakes, Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
Majewski, M. S., Foreman, W. T. and Goolsby, D. A. 2000. Pesticides in the atmosphere of the Mississippi River Valley, Part I—rain. Sci. Tot. Environ., 248: 201–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0048-9697%2899%2900543-4
Manchester-Neesvig, J. B. and Andren, A. W. 1989. Seasonal variation in the atmospheric concentration of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners. Environ. Sci. Tech., 23: 1138–1148.
Marsh, G., Hu, J., Jakobsson, E., Rahm, S. and Bergman, A. 1999. Synthesis and characterization of 32 polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environ. Sci. Tech., 33: 3033–3037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9902266
Martineau, D., Lagace, A., Beland, P., Higgins, E., Armstrong, S. and Shugart, L. R. 1988. Pathology of stranded Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) from the St. Lawrence Estuary, Quebec, Canada. J. Comp. Pathol., 98: 287–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9975%2888%2990038-2
Munkittrick, K. R., Van Der Kraak, G. J., McMaster, M. E. and Portt, C. B. 1992. Reproductive dysfunction and MFO activity in three species of fish exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent at Jackfish Bay, Lake Superior. Water Pollut. Res. J. Can., 27: 439–446.
Neely, W. B., Branson, D. R. and Blau, G. E. 1974. Partition coefficient to measure bioconcentration potential of organic chemicals in fish. Environ. Sci. Tech., 8: 1113–1115.
Norén, K. and Meironyté, D. 2000. Certain organochlorine and organobromine contaminants in swedish human milk in perspective of past 20–30 years. Chemosphere, 40: 1111–1123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0045-6535%2899%2900360-4
Norstrom, R. J., Simon, M., Moisey, J., Wakeford, B. and Weseloh, D. V. C. 2002. Geographical distribution (2000) and temporal trends (1981–2000) of brominated diphenyl ethers in Great Lakes herring gull eggs. Environ. Sci. Tech., 36: 4783–4789. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes025831e
NRC (National Research Council). 1999. Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, National Academy of Sciences.
Pearson, R. F., Swackhamer, D. L., Eisenreich, S. J. and Long, D. T. 1997a. Concentrations, accumulations, and inventories of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in sediments of the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 31: 2903–2909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9701016
Pearson, R. F., Swackhamer, D. L., Eisenreich, S. J. and Long, D. T. 1997b. Concentrations, accumulations, and inventories of toxaphene in sediments of the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 31: 3523–3529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9702780
Pearson, R. F., Swackhamer, D. L., Eisenreich, S. J. and Long, D. T. 1998. Atmospheric inputs of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans to the Great Lakes: compositional comparison of PCDD and PCDF in sediments. J. Great Lakes Res., 24: 65–82.
Pomeroy, L. R. 1974. The ocean's foodweb, a changing paradigm. Bioscience, 24: 499–504.
Rasmussen, J. B., Rowan, D. J., Lean, D. R. S. and Carey, J. H. 1990. Food chain structure in Ontario lakes determines PCB levels in lake trout (Salmelinus namaycush) and other pelagic fish. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 47: 2030–2038.
Renaud, C. B., Comba, M. E. and Kaiser, K. L. E. 1999. Temporal trend of organochlorine contaminant levels in the northeastern part of Lake Superior basin based on lamprey larvae lipid burdens. J. Great Lakes Res., 25: 918–929.
Schottler, S. P. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1994. Herbicides in the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 28: 2228–2232.
Schwarzenbach, R. P., Gschwend, P. M. and Imboden, D. M. 2003. Environmental Organic Chemistry , 2nd Ed. edition., New York: Wiley Interscience.
Sibley, P. K., Dixon, D. G. and Barton, D. R. 2001. Impact of bleached Kraft pulp mill effluent on the nearshore benthic community of Jackfish Bay, Lake Superior. Water Qual. Res. J. Can., 36: 815–833.
Sibley, P. K., Legler, J., Dixon, D. G. and Barton, D. R. 1997. Environmental health assessment of the benthic habitat adjacent to a pulp mill discharge. I. Acute and chronic toxicity of sediments to benthic macroinvertebrates. Arch. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol., 32: 274–284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002449900185
Simcik, M. F., Basu, I., Sweet, C. W. and Hites, R. A. 1999. Temperature dependence and temporal trends of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in the Great Lakes atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Tech., 33: 1991–1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes9811896
Simcik, M. F., Jeremiason, J. D., Lipiatou, E. and Eisenreich, S. J. 2003. Enhanced removal of hydrophobic organic contaminants by settling sediments in western Lake Superior. J. Great Lakes Res., 29: 41–53.
Skoglund, R. S., Stange, K. and Swackhamer, D. L. 1996. A kinetics model for predicting the accumulation of PCBs in phytoplankton. Environ. Sci. Tech., 30: 2113–2120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes950206d
Spacie, A. and Hamelink, J. R. 1982. Alternative models for describing the bioconcentration of organics in fish. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 1: 309–320.
Strachan, W. M. J. and Eisenreich, S. J. 1988. Mass Balancing of Toxic Chemicals in the Great Lakes: The Role of Atmospheric Deposition, Windsor ON, , Canada: International Joint Commission.
Strandberg, B., Dodder, N. G., Basu, I. and Hites, R. A. 2001. Concentrations and spatial variations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and other organohalogen compounds in Great Lakes air. Environ. Sci. Tech., 35: 1078–1083. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes001819f
Swackhamer, D. L., Charles, L. and Hites, R. A. 1987. Quantitation of toxaphene in environmental samples using negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry. Analyt. Chem., 59: 913–917.
Swackhamer, D. L., McVeety, B. D. and Hites, R. A. 1988. Deposition and evaporation of polychlorobiphenyl congeners to and from Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Environ. Sci. Tech., 22: 664–672.
Swackhamer, D. L., Pearson, R. F. and Schottler, S. 1999. Air-water exchange and mass balance of toxaphene in the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Tech., 33: 3864–3872. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fes990280m
Swackhamer, D. L., Schottler, S. and Pearson, R. F. 1998. Toxaphene in the Great Lakes. Chemosphere, 37: 2545–2561. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9828352http://www4.infotrieve.com/newmedline/detail.asp?NameID=9828352&Session=&searchQuery=Chemosphere%5BJournal+Name%5D+AND+37%5BVolume%5D+AND+2545%5BPage+Number%5D+AND+1998%5BPublication+Date%5D+AND+Swackhamer%5BAuthor+Name%5D&count=1http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0045-6535%2898%2900307-5
Swain, W. R. 1978. Chlorinated organic residues in fish, water, and precipitation from the vicinity of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. J. Great Lakes Res., 4: 398–407.
Thomann, R. V. 1989. Bioaccumulation model of organic chemical distribution in aquatic food chains. Environ. Sci. Tech., 23: 699–707.
Thomann, R. V. and Connolly, J. P. 1984. Model of PCB in the Lake Michigan lake trout food chain Environ. Sci. Tech, 18: 65–72.
Thomann, R. V., Connolly, J. P. and Parkerton, T. F. 1992. An equilibrium model of organic chemical accumulation in aquatic food webs with sediment interaction. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 11: 615–629.
Tiera, E., Pazo, M. J., Serret, P. and Fernandez, E. 2001. Dissolved organic carbon production by microbial populations in the Atlantic Ocean. Limnol. Oceanog., 46: 1370–1377.
UNEP. http://www.pops.int/
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 1998. Endocrine Disruption Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC) Report, Washington, D.C.: Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances. EPA 600/3–87/001
Vetter, W. and Luckas, B. 1995. Theoretical aspects of polychlorinated bornanes and the composition of toxaphene in technical mixtures and environmental samples. Sci. Tot. Environ., 160/161: 505–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0048-9697%2895%2904384-D
Von Rumpker, R., Lawless, E. W., Meiners, A. F., Lawrence, K. A., Kelso, G. L. and Horay, F. 1974. Production, Distribution, Use and Environmental Impact Potential of Selected Pesticides, Washington, D.C.: USEPA. EPA 549/1–74-001
Walker, M. K., Cook, P. M., Butterworth, B. C., Zabel, E. W. and Peterson, R. E. 1996. Toxic potency of a PCDD, PCDF, PCB mixture compared to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioixin (TCDD) for producing fish early life stage mortality. Fund. Applied Toxicol., 30: 178–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006%2Ffaat.1996.0054
WHO (World Health Organization). 1994. Environmental Health Criteria 162: Brominated Diphenyl Ethers, Geneva, , Switzerland: World Health Organization.
WHO. 1997. Environmental Health Criteria 192: Flame retardants: A General Introduction, Geneva, , Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Wong, P. T. S., Chau, Y. K., Ali, N. and Whittle, D. M. 1994. Biochemical and genotoxic effects in the vicinity of a pulp mill discharge. Environ. Toxicol. Water Qual., 9: 59–70.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Manuscripts must be original. They must not be published or be under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part. It is required that the lead author of accepted papers complete and sign the MSU Press AEHM Author Publishing Agreement and provide it to the publisher upon acceptance.
