Use of aquatic protected areas in the management of large lakes
Keywords:
ecosystem management, fish management, marine protected area, precautionary principleAbstract
There is considerable variation in the strategies used to manage large lakes. Management targets and resources for monitoring, assessment, planning and enforcement (e.g. personnel, equipment, policy, legislation) can differ considerably among countries and lakes. With a growing interest and body of research regarding Marine Protected Areas, assessments of similar freshwater areas are timely, especially considering current concerns over the global loss of biodiversity and increased interest in ecosystem-based management and the Precautionary Principle. This paper examines the use of various types of Aquatic Protected Areas in the management of large lakes (e.g. Marine Protected Area equivalents, fish sanctuaries, parks). Potential and actual benefits and drawbacks, relative uses in current management strategies, purposes for which different types of areas have been created, and related trends are discussed. Very few true equivalents of Marine Protected Areas, that permanently protect both species and their habitats from exploitation and development, have been created in freshwater systems. Most protected areas within lakes exist as fish sanctuaries, which limit or prevent harvest of one or more species, and aquatic or terrestrial (shoreline) parks, which protect aquatic and riparian habitats by preventing development or resource extraction (e.g. logging or mining). Because many Aquatic Protected Areas are established in legislation the retirement of established areas is relatively difficult and the number of Aquatic Protected Areas is increasing. Although Aquatic Protected Areas have considerable potential for improving large lake management, it is essential that management goals are compatible with the function of Aquatic Protected Areas and that factors affecting their success are determined to facilitate efficient use of resources and political will.
References
Abell, R., Allan, J. and Lehner, B. 2007. Unlocking the potential of protected areas for freshwaters. Biological Conservation, 134: 48–63.
Agardy, T., Bridgewater, P., Crosby, M. P., Day, H., Dayton, P. K., Kenchington, R., Laffoley, D., McConney, P., Murray, P. A., Parks, J. E. and Peau, L. 2003. Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 13: 353–367.
Allison, G. W., Lubchenco, J. and Carr, M. H. 1998. Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation. Ecological Applications, 8: 79–92.
Baskett, M. L., Levin, S. A., Gaines, S. D. and Dushoff, J. 2005. Marine reserve design and the evolution of size at maturation in harvested fish. Ecological Applications, 15: 882–901.
Beger, M., Harborne, A. R., Dacles, T. P., Solandt, J.-L. and Ledesma, G. L. 2004. A framework of lessons learned from community-based marine reserves and its effectiveness in guiding a new coastal management initiative in the Philippines. Environmental Management, 34: 768–801.
Brazner, J. and DeVita, W. 1998. PCBs, DDE, and mercury in young-of-the-year littoral fishes from Green Bay, Lake Michigan. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 24: 83–92.
Campbell, D. T. and Fiske, D. W. 1959. Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56: 81–105.
Coble, D. W., Bruesewitz, R. E., Fratt, T. W. and Scheirer, J. W. 1990. Lake trout, sea lampreys, and overfishing in the upper Great Lakes: a review and reanalysis. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 199: 985–995.
Cowx, I. G. 2002. “Analysis of threats to freshwater fish conservation: past and present challenges”. In Conservation of freshwater fishes: options for the future, Edited by: Collares-Pereira, M. J., Cowx, I. G. and Coelho, M. M. 201–220. UK: Blackwell Scientific Press.
Croft, M. V. and Chow-Fraser, P. 2007. Use and development of the wetland macrophyte index to detect water quality impairment in fish habitat of Great Lakes coastal marshes. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33(Suppl. 13): 172–197.
Davis, K. L. F., Russ, G. R., Williamson, D. H. and Evans, R. D. 2004. Surveillance and poaching on inshore reefs of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Coastal Management, 32: 373–387.
Edsall, T. A., Holey, M. E., Manny, B. A. and Kennedy, G. W. 1995. An evaluation of lake trout reproductive habitat on Clay Banks Reef, northwestern Lake Michigan. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 21: 418–432.
Elton, C. 1958. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants, London, , United Kingdom: Chapman and Hall.
Eshenroder, R. L., Coble, D. W., Bruesewitz, R. E., Fratt, T. W. and Scheirer, J. W. 1992. Decline of lake trout in Lake Huron. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 121: 548–554.
Fargione, J., Brown, C. S. and Tilman, D. 2003. Community assembly and invasion: an experimental test of neutral versus niche processes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences or the United States of America, 100: 8916–8920.
Gardmark, A., Jonzen, N. and Mangel, M. 2006. Density-depensity dependent body growth reduces the potential of marine reserves to enhance yields. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43: 61–69.
Grimes, C. B. and Ralston, S. 2003. Marine reserves: the best option for our oceans?. Frontier in Ecology and Evolution, 1: 496–497.
Guenette, S. and Alder, J. 2007. Lessons from marine protected areas and integrated ocean management initiatives in Canada. Coastal Management, 35: 51–78.
Hager, H. A. 1998. Area-sensitivity of reptiles and amphibians: are there indicator species for habitat fragmentation?. Ecoscience, 5: 139–147.
Hall, J. A., Tickle-Degnen, L., Rosenthal, R. and Mosteller, F. 1994. “Hypotheses and problems in research synthesis”. In The Handbook of Research Synthesis, Edited by: Cooper, H. and Hedges, L. V. 17–28. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Halpern, B. S. 2003. The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve size matter?. Ecological Applications, 13: S117–S137.
Halpern, B. S., Gaines, S. D. and Warner, R. R. 2004. Confounding effects of the export of production and the displacement of fishing effort from marine reserves. Ecological Applications, 14: 1248–1256.
Helvey, M. 2004. Seeking consensus on designing marine protected areas: keeping the fishing community engaged. Coastal Management, 32: 173–190.
IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, , UK: IUCN.
Jones, P. J. S. 2007. Point-of-view: arguments for conventional fisheries management and against no-take marine protected areas: only half of the story?. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 17: 31–43.
Jude, D. J. and Pappas, J. 1992. Fish utilization of Great Lakes wetlands. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 18: 651–672.
Kolar, C. S. and Lodge, D. M. 2001. Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 16: 199–204.
Kuparinen, A. and Merila, J. 2007. Detecting and managing fisheries-induced evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22: 652–659.
Lockwood, J. L., Cassey, P. and Blackburn, T. 2005. The role of propagule pressure in explaining species invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20: 223–228.
Madenjian, C. P. and DeSorcie, T. J. 1999. Status of lake trout rehabilitation in the northern refuge of Lake Michigan. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 19: 658–669.
Madenjian, C. P., Desorcie, T. J., McClain, J. R., Woldt, A. P., Holuszko, J. D. and Bowen Ii, C. A. 2004. Status of lake trout rehabilitation on Six Fathom Bank and Yankee Reef in Lake Huron. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 24: 1003–1016.
Mallory, M. L., Fontaine, A. J., Akearok, J. A. and Johnston, V. H. 2006. Synergy of local ecological knowledge, community involvement and scientific study to develop marine wildlife areas in eastern Arctic Canada. Polar Record, 42: 205–216.
Mayer, P. M., Reynolds, S. K., McCutchen, M. D. and Canfield, T. J. 2007. Meta-analysis of nitrogen removal in riparian buffers. Journal of Environmental Quality, 36: 1172–1180.
Minns, C. K. 2001. Science for freshwater fish habitat management in Canada: current status and future prospects. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 4: 423–436.
Minns, C. K., Cairns, V. W., Randall, R. G. and Moore, J. E. 1994. An index of biotic integrity (IBI) for fish assemblages in the littoral zone of Great Lakes' areas of concern. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 51: 1804–1822.
Mosquera, I., Côte, I. M., Jennings, S. and Reynolds, J. D. 2000. Conservation benefits of marine reserves for fish populations. Animal conservation, 3: 321–332.
Murawski, S., Rago, P. and Fogarty, M. 2004. Spillover effects from temperate marine protected areas. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 42: 167–184.
Pimm, S. L., Russell, G. J., Gittleman, J. L. and Brooks, T. M. 1995. The future of biodiversity. Science, 269: 347–350.
Reid, D. M., Anderson, D. M. and Henderson, B. A. 2001. Restoration of lake trout in Parry Sound, Lake Huron. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 21: 156–169.
Ricciardi, A. 2006. Patterns of invasion in the Laurentian Great Lakes in relation to changes in vector activity. Diversity and Distributions, 12: 425–433.
Ricciardi, A. and Rasmussen, J. B. 1999. Extinction rates of North American freshwater fauna. Conservation Biology, 13: 1220–1222.
Roberts, C. M., Bohnsack, J. A., Gell, F., Hawkins, J. P. and Goodridge, R. 2001. Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science, 294: 1920–1923.
Roberts, C. M., Hawkins, J. P. and Gell, F. R. 2005. The role of marine reserves in achieving sustainable fisheries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 360: 123–132.
Salomon, A. K., Waller, N. P., McIlhagga, C., Yung, R. L. and Walters, C. 2002. Modeling the trophic effects of marine protected area zoning policies: a case study. Aquatic Ecology, 36: 85–95.
Saunders, D. L., Meeuwig, J. J. and Vincent, A. C. 2002. Freshwater Protected Areas: strategies for conservation. Conservation Biology, 16: 30–41.
Seilheimer, T. S. and Chow-Fraser, P. 2006. Development and use of the Wetland Fish Index to assess the quality of coastal wetlands in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 63: 354–366.
Shipp, R. L. 2003. A perspective on marine reserves as a fishery management tool. Fisheries, 28: 10–21.
Shipp, R. L. 2004. Harvest benefits: marine reserves or traditional fishery management tools. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 42: 125–131.
Suski, C. D. and Cooke, S. J. 2007. Conservation of aquatic resources through the use of freshwater protected areas: opportunities and challenges. Biodiversity Conservation, 16: 2015–2029.
Uzarski, D. G., Burton, T. M. and Genet, J. A. 2004. Validation and performance of an invertebrate index of biotic integrity for lakes Huron and Michigan fringing wetlands during a period of lake level decline. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, 7: 269–288.
Uzarski, D. G., Burton, T. M., Cooper, M. J., Ingram, J. W. and Timmerman, S. T. A. 2005. Fish habitat use within and across wetland classes in coastal wetlands of the five Great Lakes: development of a fish-based index of biotic integrity. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 31: 171–187.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Manuscripts must be original. They must not be published or be under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part. It is required that the lead author of accepted papers complete and sign the MSU Press AEHM Author Publishing Agreement and provide it to the publisher upon acceptance.
